Processes and uses of dissociating molecules

ABSTRACT

A process has been developed to selectively dissociate target molecules into component products compositionally distinct from the target molecule, wherein the bonds of the target molecule do not reform because the components are no longer reactive with each other. Dissociation is affected by treating the target molecule with light at a frequency and intensity, alone or in combination with a catalyst in an amount effective to selectively break bonds within the target molecule. Dissociation does not result in re-association into the target molecule by the reverse process, and does not produce component products which have a change in oxidation number or state incorporated oxygen or other additives because the process does not proceed via a typical reduction-oxidation mechanism. Target molecules include ammonia for waste reclamation and treatment, PCB remediation, and targeted drug delivery.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 61/236,592 filed Aug. 25, 2009, U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 61/306,281 filed Feb. 19, 2010, and U.S.Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/315,262 filed Mar. 18, 2010, all ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF HE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a process for dissociating targetmolecules into ions or elements. The process can be used for energy,reclamation, and a variety of other applications, including drugdelivery, by using selected individual or group bond energies ofdissociation or ionization.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The world energy landscape is vast and convoluted. A rapidly growingglobal population has resulted in an increased need for power productionand distribution. Emerging nations, currently undergoing aggressiveefforts in industrialization, have decreased energy supply and increasedenergy prices worldwide. Reliance on the non-renewable energy sourcefossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal, has led to dangerouslevels of greenhouse gas emissions and other air pollutants. Inaddition, the processes used for obtaining fossil fuels from theenvironment, such as drilling and strip-mining, can cause significantdamage to the surrounding ecosystems.

The development of renewable energy technology is necessary to preventfurther fiscal and environmental damage in the face of growing globalenergy needs. Simple, cost effective, and broad-scope energyalternatives to fossil fuels will give current energy providersefficient alternatives while providing emerging nations safe and costeffective options for future energy infrastructure plans.

Elimination of pathogen, herbicide, pesticide, and other unwantedmaterial has become an enormous problem in soil, air, water (marine andfresh), and municipal systems. An example is polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs), which were introduced into the environment through disposal ofPCB-containing manufacturing products. Uncontrolled PCB dumping until1977 led to dangerous levels of PCB compounds in water systems,ultimately resulting in plant, animal, and human toxicity.

Current methods for removing contaminants from waste sites includeincineration, ultrasonic treatment of aqueous solutions, irradiation,pyrolysis, microbial digestion, and chemical treatment. However, all ofthese methods have significant drawbacks. Incineration is effective butexpensive on a tonnage scale. Incomplete destruction of contaminants cangive rise to secondary contaminants, requiring further treatment.Incineration also has the limitation of being useful to treatcontaminated liquid and equipment, but not contaminated soil. Ultrasoundremediation techniques can treat liquid-based waste, but formintermediates which require further remediation. Irradiation ofdeoxygenated PCBs with gamma radiation dechlorinates compounds to giveinorganic chloride, biphenyl, and a number of indiscriminate and unknownintermediate contaminants. Pyrolytic methods are extremely energyconsuming and also yield products which require post-pyrolytictreatment. Microbial decomposition is a form of bioremediation which ishighly specific for contaminants, but is slow, and successfulbioremediation treatment can require weeks or months.

Remediation methods for liquid samples include filtration,sedimentation, reverse osmosis, forward osmosis, oxidation/reductionprocesses, electrolysis, thermal radiation, irradiation, pyrolysis, andenzymatic degradation. Drawbacks to the above-mentioned processes aresimilar to those for traditional solid waste treatment; namely costeffectiveness, high energy consumption, and significant intermediate andby-product formation requiring further remediation.

Photocatalytic oxidation uses a photocatalyst for the destruction ofsubstances in fluids or air. Useful photocatalysts are generallysemiconductors with a room temperature band gap energy of about 3.2 eV.When this material is irradiated with photons (hv) having wavelengthsless than about 385 nm (UV), the band gap energy is exceeded andelectrons (e⁻) are generated through promotion from the valence band tothe conduction band which results in the generation of holes (h⁺). Theresulting highly reactive electron-hole pairs have lifetimes in thespace-charge region of the photocatalyst that enables participation inchemical reactions, provided recombination events do not occur first.When a Titanium catalyst is used, the mechanism is postulated to followas below:

TiO₂+hv→h⁺+e⁻  [1]

H⁺OH⁻→—OH  [2]

Ti⁴⁺+e⁻→Ti³⁺  [3]

Ti³⁺+O_(2ads)→Ti⁴⁺+O_(2ads) ⁻  [4]

—OH+pollutant→oxidized pollutant  [5]

Undesired Recombination Reaction: h⁺+e⁻→hv or heat  [6]

Hydroxyl radicals (—OH) and super-oxide ions (O_(2ads) ⁻) are highlyreactive species that can readily oxidize volatile organic compounds andaerosols adsorbed on catalyst surfaces. The Titanium-catalyzed processuses additives such as adsorbed oxygen on the surface of the catalyst.This mechanism and process result in the formation of oxygenateddegradation by-products.

There is a need for a simple, cost effective process of harnessing theenergy in waste material without the generation of intermediates orby-products which require further remediation. The end goal is a processfor conversion of waste and other polluted material to useful componentsor inert substances which can be utilized for energy or other commercialpurposes.

It is therefore the object of the present process to provide a processwhich eliminates oxygenated by-products generated by current remediationprocesses.

It is further an object of the present process to efficiently andrapidly dissociate waste products without generating intermediates whichrequire further remediation.

It is another object of the present invention to use the products of theprocess to generate energy.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A process has been developed to selectively dissociate target moleculesinto component products compositionally distinct from the targetmolecule, wherein the bonds of the target molecule do not reform becausethe components are no longer reactive with each other. Dissociation iseffected by treating the target molecule with energy such as light at afrequency and intensity, alone or in combination with a catalyst, in anamount effective to selectively break bonds within the target molecule.This process does not result in the re-association of the componentparts into the target molecule by the reverse process. The process alsodoes not produce component products by oxidation or reduction process,an exchange of electrons, or a change in oxidative state of the moleculewhich have incorporated oxygen or other additives because the processdoes not proceed via a typical reduction-oxidation mechanism.

In a preferred embodiment, the process is specific for target molecules,providing a mechanism for targeting molecules in a complex mixture. Inanother embodiment, the process can further include purification of theresultant component products. The process can be used to remediate wasteor recycle the component products. In particular, the process can beused to dissociate target molecules to generate hydrogen, which can beused as an energy source. Examples include ammonia, as in urine,fertilizer runoff, and aguaculture wastes. In another embodiment, PCBsare degraded quickly, efficiently, and cost-effectively, producingbiphenyl and elemental chlorine as the only byproducts of the reaction.Biphenyl is much less toxic and is more degradable than are the parentPCBs. The process can also be used to treat, prevent, and detectbiological diseases and disorders. In a preferred embodiment, ananoparticle composition includes a chemotherapeutic bioactive agentwhich is released by exposure to the selective energy frequency andintensity-energy of dissociation. In another embodiment, cells ormicroorganisms are selectively killed using the process.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a bar graph of the percentage decrease of aqueous ammoniaafter photocatalytic degradation. The results are achieved with thefollowing catalysts: Pt/TiO2 (platinized titania), TiO2 (Titaniumoxide), Cu-AMO (Copper-doped Amorphous Manganese Oxide, AMO (AmorphousManganese Oxide), and Cu—Ce—Co (Copper-Cerium-Cobalt).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. Definitions and Mechanisms

An atom is ionized by absorbing a photon of energy equal to or higherthan the ionization energy of the atom. Multiple photons below theionization threshold of an atom may combine their energies to ionize anatom by a process known as multi-photon ionization. These concepts alsoapply to molecules. Resonance enhanced multi-photon ionization (REMPI)is a technique in which a molecule is subject to a single resonant ormulti-photon frequency such that an electronically excited intermediatestate is reached. A second photon or multi-photon then ejects theelectronically excited electron and ionizes the molecule.

Among a mixture of molecules with different bond dissociation energies,selective activation of one chemical bond requires a mono-chromaticsource. For example, in a compound containing N—H (bond dissociationenergy of 3.9 eV) and C—H (bond dissociation energy of 4.3 eV) bonds, aspecific photon source of 4.0 eV dissociates the N—H bond exclusively.

The process described herein relies on two main principles. The firstprinciple is that the dissociation of target molecules requires breakingmultiple bonds. Thus, a plurality of photons or other energetic sourcesare absorbed by a given molecule. The second principle is thatdissociation of molecules in a complex mixture can be achieved withspecific selection of the energy for dissociation (both frequency andintensity), defined herein as the promoter.

“Irradiation” as generally used herein refers to subjecting or treatinga sample with beams of particles or energy. Irradiation includes anyform of electromagnetic or acoustic radiation.

“Bioactive Agent” as generally used herein refers to any physiologicallyor pharmacologically active substances that act locally or systemicallyin the body. A biologically active agent is a substance used for thetreatment (e.g., therapeutic agent), prevention (e.g., prophylacticagent), diagnosis (e.g., diagnostic agent), cure or mitigation of one ormore symptoms of a disease or disorder, a substance which affects thestructure or function of the body, or pro-drags, which becomebiologically active or more active after they have been placed in apredetermined physiological environment. Examples can include, but arenot limited to, small-molecule drugs, peptides, proteins such asantibodies, sugars, polysaccharides, nucleotides, oligonucleotides suchas aptamers, siRNA, and miRNAs, and combinations thereof.

“Bond Dissociation Energy” as generally used herein refers to thestandard enthalpy of change when a bond is cleaved.

“Bond Energy” as generally used herein refers to the average of the sumof the bond dissociation energies in a molecule.

“Component Products” as generally used herein refers to known ions oratoms composed of only elements found within the target molecule.Individual component products have a chemical formula distinct from thetarget molecule. An example is N₂ and H₂, which are each componentproducts of NH₃.

“Catalyst” as generally used herein refers to any chemical whichenhances the rate and/or efficiency of molecular dissociation comparedwith the rate and/or efficiency of dissociation in the absence of thecatalyst.

“Chemical Waste” as generally used herein refers to any inorganic ororganic substance, present in any physical state, that is unwanted in agiven sample due to environmental or toxicity concerns.

“Dissociation” as generally used herein refers to breaking the bonds ofa molecule. Dissociation in the current process is requires that theoriginal bonds of the target molecule do not re-associate.

“Excited State” as generally used herein refers to a state in which oneor more electrons of an atom or molecule are in a higher-energy levelthan ground state.

“Globally” as generally used herein refers to treatment of an organismwith a energy of dissociation over a surface area including multipleorgans. In the extreme instance, globally refers to treatment of theentire organism with a energy of dissociation without regard to thespecific tissue or target organ of interest.

“Locally” as generally used herein refers to injection of a nanoparticlecomposition in a target tissue or organ of interest.

“Nanoparticle”, as generally used herein refers to particle or astructure in the nanometer (nm) range, typically from about 0.1 nm toabout 1000 nm in diameter.

“Non-Target Molecule” as generally used herein refers to the anysubstance within a sample containing target molecules which is notaffected by the process.

“Pharmaceutically Acceptable” as generally used herein refers to thosecompounds, materials, compositions, and/or dosage forms which are,within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contactwith the tissues of human beings and animals without excessive toxicity,irritation, allergic response, or other problems or complicationscommensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio.

“Promoter” as generally used herein refers to the energy required fordissociation of a target bond, which is both selective for the targetbond and sufficient to prevent re-association of the bond.

“Energy of Dissociation Source” as generally used herein refers to anychemical, apparatus, or combination thereof, which supplies the energyof dissociation with the energy required to dissociate target bondswithin a target molecule. The energy of dissociation source must supplysuitable intensity and suitable frequency for target bond dissociation.An example of a energy of dissociation source is a xenon lamp coupled toa pulse generator. A energy of dissociation source can optionallycontain a catalyst. An example of such an energy of dissociation sourceis a titanium dioxide catalyst and a xenon lamp coupled to a pulsegenerator.

“Recycling” as generally used herein refers to reusing substances foundin waste for any purpose.

“Remediation” as generally used herein refers to treatment of waste tocapture stored energy or useful components trapped therein

“Sample” as generally used herein refers to at least one target moleculewhich is subjected to the dissociation process. A sample can compriseboth target and non-target molecules.

“Systemically” as generally used herein refers to compositions which areadministered to a subject by means other than injection into a targettissue or organ.

“Targeting Agent” as generally used herein refers to any entity which isspecific for a particular cell type, tissue, or organ within anorganism.

Targeting agents can be synthetic or biologic agents. Biologic,synthetic, and other targeting agents on the surface of the nanoparticlecompositions direct the nanoparticle composition to cells of interestwhich are to be treated with the encapsulated bioactive agent upontreatment with the promoter.

“Target Bond” as generally used herein refers to any bond within atarget molecule. Target bonds can be covalent, ionic, or “weak bonds”including dipole-dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, orhydrogen bonding. Target bonds can be single or multiple covalent bands.

“Target Molecule” as generally used herein refers to a molecule, orportion of a maeromolecule, that contains at least one bond. A targetmolecule can be a nanoparticle.

II. Target Compositions

A. Target Molecules

Target molecules must contain at least one bond to be dissociated.Target molecules can be any compound of the solid, liquid, gas, orplasma physical state. Target molecules can be charged or uncharged.Target molecules can be naturally occurring or synthetically preparedcompounds.

In one embodiment, target molecules are purified material. An example isdistilled water, which is dissociated into H₂ and O₂ by the processdescribed herein. In another embodiment, target molecules are in amixture including non-target molecules. An example of such an embodimentis ammonia dissolved in water. In this embodiment, ammonia is the targetmolecule, and is dissociated into N₂ and H₂. Water in this embodiment isnot dissociated because the energy of dissociation is specific for theenergy required to dissociate the N—H bonds of ammonia and not the O—Hbonds of water.

The process can be used to dissociate almost any molecule. Forremediation, this may be a molecule such as PCB. Target molecules arepreferably waste or pollutant products from any source, such as alkylsulfonates, alkyl phenols, ammonia, benzoic acid, carbon monoxide,carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, dioxin, fumaric acid, grease,herbicides, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide,formaldehyde, methane, nitrogenous wastes (sewage, waste water, andagricultural runoff), nitric acid, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, pesticides,polychlorinated biphenyls, oil, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and sulfuricacid. Target molecules can be reactive or volatile aliphatic or aromaticorganic compounds.

In the medical field, the molecule may be a nanoparticle releasing atherapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic agent. Target molecules can alsobe critical proteins, polysaccharides, or oligonucleotides of infectiousagents, transformed (cancerous) cells, bacteria, or other livingorganisms. Delivery of therapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic agentscan be effected by exposure to the energy of dissociation in a highlyspecific and controlled manner. This may be application to the moleculesper se, or to nanoparticles formed of or incorporating agent to bereleased.

B. Target Band

A target bond is any bond within a target molecule. Types of bondsaffected by the dissociative process described herein include covalent,ionic, van der Waals, hydrogen bonding, or London dispersion forces orany bond which can form and has dissociation energy or energies ifapplied will break the bond and not allow the reformation of the bond.In the embodiment where the target bond is covalent, the bond can be asingle bond, double bond, or triple bond. The energy of dissociationmust be specific for the target bond of the target molecule. Anon-limiting list of exemplary target bonds include N—H, C—H, C—C, C═C,C≡C, C—N, C═N, C≡N, C—O, C═O, C≡O, O—H, O—P, O═P, and C—X bonds, where Xis any halogen selected from chlorine, fluorine, iodine, and bromine.

The energy of dissociation energy of dissociation is specific for thebond dissociation energy of a target bond. Bond dissociation energiesare well known in the art. Examples of bond dissociation energiesinclude H—H, 104.2 kcal/mol; B—F, 150 kcaVmol; C═C, 146 kcal/mol; C—C,83 kcal/mol; B—O, 125 kcal/mol; N═N, 109 kcal/mol; N—N, 38.4 kcal/mol;C—N, 73 kcal/mol; O═O, 119 kcal/mol; O—O, 35 kcal/mol; N—CO, 86kcal/mol; C═N, 147 kcal/mol; F—F, 36.6 kcal/mol; C—O, 85.5 kcaVmol; C═O(CO2), 192 kcal/mol; Si—Si, 52 kcal/mol; O—CO, 110 kcal/mol; C═O(aldehyde), 177 kcal/mol; P—P, 50 kcal/mol; C—S, 65 kcal/mol; C—O(ketone), 178 kcal/mol; S—S, 54 kcal/mol; C—F, 116 kcal/mol;C═O (ester),179 kcal/mol; Cl—Cl, 58 kcal/mol; C—C, 181 kcal/mol; C═O (amide), 179kcal/mol; Br—Br, 46 kcal/mol; C—Br, 68 kcal/mol C═O (halide), 177kcal/mol; I—I, 36 kcal/mol; C—I, 51 kcal/mol; C═S (CS2), 138 kcal/mol;H—C, 99 kcal/mol; C—B, 90 kcal/mol; N═O (HONO), 143 kcal/mol; H—N, 93kcal/mol; C—Si, 76 kcal/mol; P═O (POCl₃), 110 kcal/mol; H—O, 111kcal/mol; C—P, 70 kcal/mol; P═S (PSCl₃), 70 kcal/mol; H—F, 135 kcal/mol;N—O, 55 kcal/mol; S═O (SO₂), 128 kcal/mol, H—Cl, 103 kcal/mol; S—O, 87kcal/mol; S═O (DMSO), 93 kcal/mol; H—Br, 87.5 kcal/mol; Si—F, 135kcal/mol; P═P, 84 kcal/mol; H—I, 71 kcal/mol; Si—Cl, 90 kcal/mol; P≡P,117 kcal/mol; H—B, 90 kcal/mol; Si—O, 110 kcal/mol; C≡O, 258 kcal/mol;H—S, 81 kcal/mol; P—Cl, 79 kcal/mol; C≡C, 200 kcal/mol; H—Si, 75kcal/mol; P—Br, 65 kcal/mol; N≡N, 226 kcal/mol; H—P, 77 kcal/mol; P—O,90 kcal/mol; C≡N, 213 kcal/mol.

In one embodiment, target bonds are dissociated heterolytically by theprocess described herein. When heterolytic cleavage occurs, ioniccomponent products may be produced in addition to radicals and ejectedelectrons, for example:

A:B A→A−+B⁺+e⁻, or

A:B→A⁺+B−+e⁻

The radicals can re-associate to form A:B, but in the preferredembodiment, the radicals re-associate in a hornomeric fashion to form kAand B:B component products. One, two, or more identical radicals canassociate to form known ions, atoms, or molecules.

In some embodiments, target molecules contain multiple non-identicalatoms, multiple oxidation states, or combinations thereof, all of whichcontain a variety of types of target bonds. Examples of target moleculeswith non-identical target bonds containing multiple non-identical atomsare dichloroethane (CH₂Cl₂) and ethanolamine (OHCH₂CH₂NH₂). Examples oftarget molecules with non-identical target bonds with multiple oxidationstates include ethyl acetylene HC≡CH₂CH₃ and ethyl isocyanate(CH₃CH₂N═C═O).

C. Sample Preparation

The sample can be in any physical state including solid, liquid, gas,plasma, or combination thereof for treatment. In one embodiment, gaseousmaterial is dissolved in water. Gaseous waste sources include, amongothers, ventilation makeup air, ambient air, air from stripping andoff-gassing operations, soil vapor extraction (SVE), airborne matter,organic particulate matter, process vent gas, and wastewater treatmentoff-gas.

In one embodiment aqueous treatment streams including liquid effluents,wastewater, industrial runoff, and agricultural runoff is used as thesample. These liqUid waste sources are already in aqueous form and canbe directly treated with the promoter. In one embodiment, solid andsludge waste sources such as landfill waste and polluted soil aretreated.

In some embodiments, the target molecule is present in a range from 1part per billion (ppb) or lower to very high concentrations.

In another embodiment, the sample is completely comprised of targetmaterial. An example of such an embodiment is water.

Those skilled in the art will recognize the energy of dissociationintensity and duration of energy of dissociation treatment will need tobe adjusted based on concentration of target molecules in a sample.Higher concentrations of target molecules are successfully dissociatedby increasing energy of dissociation power (wattage), increasingexposure time to the promoter, or a combination thereof.

III. Energy of Dissociation and Energy Sources

The energy of dissociation is the energy required for dissociation of atarget molecule, and is specific for the target bond or bonds within atarget molecule. The energy of dissociation is tunable and specific forthe bond dissociation energy of any target bond within any targetmolecule.

The energy of dissociation is applied at a frequency and intensityeffective for both scission of the target bond and target moleculedissociation.

In an example, the target molecule is AB, and application of the energyof dissociation specific for the A—B bond results in ejection of anelectron from the target bond yielding a radical, an ion, and anelectron, according to the following possible mechanisms:

A:B A→A−+B⁺+e⁻, or

A:B→A⁺+B−+e⁻

The ions and radicals can be stable isolable species, or can combinewith other ions to form molecules, i.e. the component products. Theejected electrons can be captured by an electron sink. The intensity ofthe energy of dissociation must be such that re-association ofcomponents back into the target molecules does not occur.

In one embodiment, application of the energy of dissociation satisfiesthe bond dissociation energy of the target bond of a target molecule viaa one step electronic process, and the target bond is dissociated. Onceone target bond has been dissociated, the energy of dissociation sourcecan be tuned to the frequency of a second target bond dissociationenergy and applied to the sample to affect dissociation of a secondtarget bond. The energy of dissociation sources can be tuned as neededto dissociate all target bonds of the target molecule. There arenumerous apparatuses that can provide multi-energy or photons within anano second or quicker to effect irreversible dissociation and preventformation of reactants from the dissociated target molecule components.

In another embodiment, application of the energy of dissociationsatisfies the bond dissociation energy of the target bond of a targetmolecule via a process involving the Rydberg excited state of the targetmolecule. First, the energy of dissociation source excites the targetmolecule to a Rydberg state, wherein the energy required to nearlyremove an electron from the ionic core (the ionization or dissociationenergy) of a target molecule has been achieved. Next, the same ordifferent energy of dissociation source then supplies sufficient energyto eject the excited electron from the target bond. In this embodiment,one or more energy of dissociation sources can be used for each step.Once one target bond has been dissociated, the energy of dissociationsource can be tuned to the frequency of a second target bonddissociation energy. The energy of dissociation sources can be tuned asneeded to dissociate all target bonds of the target molecule.

For example, treatment of ammonia with an energy of dissociation occursvia the two-step process involving the Rydberg State. First, energy ofdissociation treatment of 193 nm excites a shared electron in the N—Hbond such that ammonia is in an excited Rydberg state. Subsequent energyof dissociation treatment of 214 nm energy expels the electron anddissociates ammonia into NH₂ ⁻ and H.Subsequent dissociative processeswill give component products which re-associate to form N₂ and H₂.

In one embodiment, the one-step process, the two-step process, or acombination thereof are used to dissociate the target molecule. In oneembodiment, one or more energy of dissociation sources are used fordissociation of each target bond within a target molecule. In oneembodiment, one or more energy of dissociation sources are used incombination for dissociation of each target bond within a targetmolecule.

An exemplary molecule contains N—H, C—O, and O—H bonds. The N—H bond iscleaved with application of a 193 nm and 214 mn xenon bulb energy ofdissociation source. The C—O bonds are cleaved with a mono-chromaticpulse generator. The O—H bonds are cleaved with a combination ofphotocatalyst and UV radiation. All of these energy of dissociationsources comprise the energy of dissociation required for completedissociation of all the bonds of the target molecule. In some cases thisrequires three or more bond energies to expel the electron. In somecases, a filter may be used to isolate wavelengths or energies from awide range source.

A. Energy of Dissociation Sources

An energy of dissociation source provides the energy of the promoter.The energy of dissociation source delivers irradiative energy,catalysis, or combinations thereof. An energy of dissociation sourcesupplies the energy of dissociation with electromagnetic energy,acoustic energy, or any other energy which meets the bond dissociationenergy of the target bond. The energy of dissociation source energy isselected from a non-exclusive list including photonic, photo-catalytic,chemical, kinetic, potential, magnetic, thermal, gravitational, sound,light, elastic, DC or AC modulation current (electrical), plasma,ultrasound, piezoelectric, or electrochemical energy.

Energy of dissociation sources include any apparatus which can supplythe specific bond dissociation energy to break target bonds of targetmolecules specifically without non-target molecule bonds being affected.Examples include mono-chromatic light, monotone sound, or any othermono-energy source.

In one embodiment, an energy of dissociation source is applied at theappropriate frequency and intensity to attain a multi-photon ormulti-frequency energy of dissociation within a rapid time scale throughuse of a generator of nano to pico-pulse cycles.

In some embodiments, energy of dissociation sources can be frequencygenerators, electrical generators, plasma generators, arc lamps, pulsegenerators, amplifying generators, tunable lasers, ultraviolet lamps,ultraviolet lasers, pulse ultraviolet generators, and ultrasoundgenerators.

In some embodiments, the energy of dissociation source is one or morereactor beds having any number of lamps, generators, and/or bulbs;lamps, generators, and/or bulbs having the same or different sizes interms of diameter and length; lamps, generators, and/or bulbs having thesame or different wattages and/or any combination of the foregoing. Thelamps, generators, and/or bulbs useful in this method can be any shape,size, or wattage. For example, use of a pulse light source allows one touse a 10 watt input of energy and generate 400,000 watts of pulse energywithin ⅓ of a second of output, thereby reducing energy usage andequipment size and cost.

In preferred embodiments, the energy of dissociation source is a pulsetunable laser or diode attached to a pulse generator.

Those skilled in the art will recognize the nature of the target bondand target molecule will determine the identity, frequency, andintensity of energy of dissociation source.

In one embodiment, photocatalytic processes use ultraviolet lightpromoters, supplied by ultraviolet energy of dissociation sources thatare positioned to emit photons of ultraviolet light. The ultravioletlight sources are generally adapted to produce light having one or morewavelengths within the ultraviolet portion of the electromagneticspectrum. However, the method should be understood as includingultraviolet light sources that may produce other light having one ormore wavelengths that are not within the ultraviolet portion (e.g.,wavelengths greater than 400 nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum.

In other photocatalytic processes, the energy of dissociation source isreplaced by other devices, such as lamps or bulbs other than ultravioletfluorescent lamps or bulbs; non-ultraviolet light emitting diodes;waveguides that increase surface areas and direct ultraviolet light andany energy light source that activates a photocatalyst; mercury vaporlamps; xenon lamps; halogen lamps; combination gas lamps; and microwavesources to provide sufficient energy to the photocatalyst substance tocause the bond dissociation to occur.

In one embodiment, the photocatalyst is applied to the surface of afiber optic device and activated from the inside by the specific energyof dissociation. The fiber optic device can be placed into a membranethrough which air, solids or liquids flows.

B. Energy of Dissociation Source Intensity

Energy of dissociation source intensity is the quantity of energysupplied to the promoter, which treats a target molecule. Energy ofdissociation source intensity is directly proportional to the number andpercentage of bonds which can be dissociated. Low intensity energy ofdissociation sources have the capability to dissociate a smallerproportion of target bonds compared to a higher intensity energy ofdissociation sources. For example, in a photonic energy of dissociationsource, the greater the number of photons present, the higher thelikelihood of ejecting electrons.

In one embodiment, energy of dissociation source intensity is increasedby use of a pulse generator in conjunction with a lamp of the properwavelength, or a tunable laser. In a preferred embodiment, the pulsegenerator supplies a predetermined number of pulses per second.

C. Energy of Dissociation Source Frequency

The frequency of energy of the energy of dissociation source (inphotonic cases, the wavelengths of radiant energy) specificallydissociates target bonds of target compounds. One frequency, multipleselected frequencies, or combinations of energy of dissociation sourcefrequencies can be used depending on the chemical structure of thetarget material. The apparatus must deliver sufficient intensity of thedissociation energy to completely dissociate the bond in adequatenumbers to satisfy the need of the end user.

Methods of determining the appropriate frequency at which a target bondcan be dissociated is known in the art, and include resonance enhancedrnult-photon ionization (REMPI) spectroscopy, resonance ionizationspectroscopy (RIS), photofragment imaging, product imaging, velocity mapimaging, three-dimensional ion imaging, centroiding, zero electronkinetic imaging (ZEKE), mass enhanced threshold ionization (MATI), andphoto-induced Rydberg ionization (PIRI).

Wavelengths to dissociate hydrogens from ammonia are 193, 214, 222, 234and 271 nm. Three or more of these wavelengths in combination break NH₃into its components: N₂ (g) and H₂ (g) without producing ozone. Examplesof wavelengths for dissociation include 193 nm and 214 nm, both of whichare required. A wavelength of 248 nm will break down Ozone. In apreferred embodiment, the energy of dissociation source frequency rangeis from 115 nm to 400 nm, with appropriate filters, to satisfy theprecise frequency of dissociation energies required for hydrogendissociation only. Adjustments are made for cage effect and molecularinteraction.

In one embodiment, the energy of dissociation source frequency issupplied by a tunable laser or light energy source that subjects samplesto a mono-energy.

If the proper dissociation bond energy at a sufficient intensity todissociate a selected bond or group of bonds is applied, there are noindiscriminate or random molecules or atoms produced other than whatwill be determined by the selected bonds which are targeted fordissociation, eliminating the random production of undesirableby-products or intermediates seen in oxidation and reduction, microbialor indiscriminate chemical reaction. An electron sink can also be addedto the process to insure that there is no recombination or potential forintermediate or by-product production.

D. Catalysts

In one embodiment, the energy of dissociation source includes acatalyst. The catalyst enhances the rate of bond dissociation. Thecatalyst can be any material of any physical configuration which iscompatible with the sample and any other energy of dissociation sources.Catalysts may be unifunctional, multifunctional, or a combinationthereof. Catalysts can be used alone or in combination with othercatalysts. The catalyst is used to drive the reaction to 100%completion, i.e., dissociating generally every ammonia molecule intonitrogen and hydrogen. The catalyst is applied to the target molecule oran interface between the energy source and the target molecule whereinthe target molecule contacts the catalyst. Catalyst is applied to asurface (such as a nanoparticle or tube), or dispersed into a liquid orsuspension, through which the energy passes to the target molecules.

In a preferred embodiment, an energy of dissociation source includes aphotoeatalyst and photonic (light-based) energy source. Thephotocatalyst provides an effective means for converting light intochemical energy. The catalyst or photocatalyst is semi-conductivematerial such as titanium oxides, platinized titania, amorphousmanganese oxide, and copper-doped manganese oxide, titanium dioxide,strontium titanate, barium titanate, sodium titanate, cadmium sulfide,zirconium dioxide, and iron oxide. Photocatalysts can also besemiconductors that support a metal, such as platinum, palladium,rhodium, and ruthenium, strontium titanate, amorphous silicon,hydrogenated amorphous silicon, nitrogenated amorphous silicon,polycrystalline silicon, and germanium, and combinations thereof.Catalysts or photocatalysts can be carbon-based graphene or graphite, aswell as carbon-doped semi-conductive or other magnetic material, forexample, graphene doped AMO.

The data in Example 1 show good activity of Cu-AMO in the photocatalyticdegradation of NH₃. Some of the parameters to increase activity includeenhanced surface area, optimization of [Cu²⁺], and resultant morphology.The electronic properties of the catalyst may also be important sincethe AMO is mixed valence (Mn²⁺, Mn³⁺, Mn⁴⁺) and possible reduction ofCu²⁺ to Cu¹⁺. The most active photocatalysts can be analyzed with X-rayphotoelectron spectroscopy to study the oxidation state of the copper inthese materials. Catalysts are characterized with X-ray powderdiffraction (XRD) to study any crystallinity of the materials, electrondiffraction (ED) in a transmission electron microscope (TEM) to studyboth crystalline and amorphous content of the catalyst, and atomicabsorption (AA) for compositions of the catalyst. Semi-quantitativeanalyses of the solid sample can be done by energy dispersive X-rayanalyses in a scanning electron microscope (SEM).

E. Duration of the Process

The process typically is conducted until all target molecules have beendissociated into component products. Examples of duration of timeinclude from a fraction of a second to 10 minutes. In a preferredembodiment, the process is conducted for one minute.

Those skilled in the art will recognize the energy of dissociationsource intensity, concentration of sample, and energy of dissociationsource energy required will effect the amount of time required forcomplete dissociation.

IV. Methods of Use

A specific frequency of light at the proper intensity when applied tomolecules, optionally in the presence of a catalytic or similarpromoter, will dissociate any selected bond, resulting in thedestruction or inactivation through atomic dissociation of the molecule.The component product gases, elements or chemicals can be purified,stored, utilized or disposed of.

A. Remediation

In some embodiments, chemical waste or polluted material comprisingtarget molecules are subjected to dissociation with an energy ofdissociation to remediate treatment streams or waste sources. Types oftreatment streams include, among others, ventilation makeup air, ambientair, air from stripping and off-gassing operations, soil vaporextraction (SVE), airborne matter, organic particulate matter, processvent gas, wastewater treatment off-gas, liquid effluents (e.g.wastewater, aquaculture water, industrial and agricultural runoff)containing at least one undesirable or otherwise unwanted compound. Inother embodiment, the process can also be used to remediate solid waste,sludge waste, landfill waste, and polluted soil.

Nitrate and Ammonia Remediation in Water and Agriculture

For example, ammonia gas, generally found dissolved in effluent streamsand waste products resulting from farming and agriculture oraquaculture, can be dissociated into N₂ and H₂ gases. Nitrate, one ofthe oxidation results of ammonia when found in ground water at levels of10 ppm or more has been proven to cause spontaneous abortions inpregnant woman. With the increase in agriculture runoff and seepage intoour fresh and salt water systemsa need to remove these nitrogenousbyproducts and most all others has become a necessary requirement toprotect our growing population.

Every 7 to 10 years, local municipal sewer and water systems need tore-tool due to wear of the equipment and to expand due to increasingpopulation. This approach of removing microorganism and other introducedcontaminants would replace several of the current energy wasteful andexcessively over sized processes into a compact unit whose cost shouldbe much less then the combined current removal units. The energyconsumption per contaminant destroyed will be considerably less thancurrent practices. The foot print is quite a bit smaller than currentcommercial units. Therefore, this technology can provide a competitiveadvantage for the distributor when these systems are placed in centercity areas or in the home where space is at a premium. This technologyalso provides an effective level of contaminate elimination which hasbeen unavailable in the past. The microorganism or target molecule killrate will be absolute with no toxic by-products produced, preventingsuch disasters as algae blooms or disease micro-organism contaminationdue to unchecked discharges of many of these nutrient rich and diseaseladen by-products which are not removed from most of the currentmunicipal facilities.

Other related markets include photocatalytic systems for cleanup ofnitrogen wastes in aquariums, consumer fish tanks or aquacultureapplications, as well as cleanup of contaminates found in confined sitesfor example, in submarines, on ships or in government facilities inisolated areas where water is scarce or contaminated. Other applicationsinclude portable devices for treatment of water for consumption in theenvironment. The competitors in the aquarium market use bio-filtrationtechniques which are ineffective and produce many harmful by-products.Other applications which have been used or are being worked on for thismarket are low intensity UV system or oxidation systems which allproduce harmful by-products due to their incomplete processing ofcontaminates or the production or use of secondary products such asOzone which are also harmful to the inhabitants of the tank system andthe owners of those tanks.

PCB Remediation

A major application of this technology is in PCB remediation.Polychlorinated biphenyls are mixtures of up to 209 individualchlorinated compounds known as congeners. There are no known naturalsources of PCBs. PCBs have been introduced into our environment due totheir use as coolants and lubricants in transformers, capacitors, andother electrical equipment. Although the production of PCBs was stoppedin 1977 they continue to effect our environment and all livingorganisms. The literature is full of accounts of the harmful effects ofPCBs on animal and plant life. For example in 1968 in Japan 14,000people where poisoned by eating chicken whose rice feed was contaminatedby PCB. It was also noted in a 2008 New York Times report “Toxic BreastMilk” that PCBs found their way into healthy nursing mothers throughoutthe US to levels topping the 1000s of ppb of PCB level.

PCBs were dumped uncontrollably into the environment for years beforethe harmful effects of this chemical were known. GE dumped over 1.3million pounds of PCBs into the Hudson River between 1947 to 1977. Otherareas of major contamination are the areas around the old Westinghouseplant in Bloomington, Ind. The great lakes are still heavily polluted,despite extensive work to clean up the area.

Global transportation through atmospheric pollution has become a majorproblem in protecting the US populate from exposure from other countriesand from any atmospheric transport from our own sites. It has beenestimated that due to the atmospheric concentration of PCBs in Milwaukeeof 1.9 ng/m³, Lake Michigan accumulates 120 Kg/year of PCBs. Some homesin the US have recorded concentrations as high as 35 ng/m³, 10 timeshigher than EPA guideline limits of 3.4 ng/m³.

PCBs exhibit a wide range of toxic effects. These effects may varydepending on the specific PCB. Similar to dioxin, toxicity of coplanarPCBs and mono-ortho-PCBs are thought to be primarily mediated viabinding to aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Because AhR is atranscription factor, abnormal activation may disrupt cell function byaltering the transcription of genes. The concept of toxic equivalencyfactors (TEF) is based on the ability of a PCB to activate AhR. Forexample, di-ortho-substituted non-coplanar PCBs interfere withintracellular signal transduction dependent on calcium; this may lead toneurotoxicity. Ortho-PCBs may disrupt thyroid hormone transport bybinding to transthyretin.

Current methods of elimination of PCBs are physical, microbial, chemicaland containment, all of which have their benefits and drawbacks. Largequantities of PCBs have been placed in landfills, mainly in the form oftransformers and capacitors. Many municipal sites are not designed tocontain these pollutants and PCBs are able to escape into the atmosphereor ground water.

Incineration can be quite effective yet is expensive, can transferintermediate contaminates into the air or water and can form newcontaminates such as PCDDs, PCDFs, dioxins, in addition to those formedby the incomplete destruction of the PCB, itself. Such specificconditions mean that it is extremely expensive to destroy PCBs on atonnage scale, and it can only be used on PCB containing equipment andcontaminated liquid. This method is not suitable for the decontaminationof affected soils.

In a similar process to combustion, high power ultrasonic waves areapplied to water, generating cavitation bubbles. This process convertsthe PCB to another form. This form can also be harmful and need furthertreatment. This process is also energy consuming.

If a deoxygenated mixture of PCBs in isopropanol or mineral oil issubject to irradiation with gamma rays then the PCBs will bedechlorinated to form inorganic chloride and biphenyl. This process isindiscriminate and many unknown intermediate contaminates can be formed.The process is also inhibited by such substances as oxygen, nitrousoxide, sulfur hexafluoride or nitrobenzene.

Destruction of PCBs with pyrolysis using plasma arc processes, likeincineration uses heat, however unlike incineration, there is nocombustion. The process can be energy consuming. The long chainmolecules are broken with extreme temperature provided by an electricare in an inert environment. Adequate post pyrolisis post treatment ofthe resultant products is required in order to prevent the risk of backreactions.

Many chemical methods are available to destroy or reduce the toxicity ofPCBs. Generally these processes are linked to high temperatures, theyform intermediates, are oxidizing and are subject to inhibition. Workhas centered on the study of micro-organisms that are able to decomposePCBs. Generally, these organisms work very slowly. They tend to behighly selective in their de-chlorination, although not so much when itcomes to selecting a carbon source where they may be redirected byaccessing other sources of carbon, which they decompose in preference toPCBs. They are also inhibited by environmental, chemical and competitivehabitats, therefore they either are not able to perform thedecomposition or the process proceeds at a much reduced rate. Furtherrecent developments have focused on testing enzymes and vitaminsextracted from microbes which show PCB activity. Especially promisingseems to be the use of vitamin B12, in which a cobalt ion is inoxidation state (III) under normal redox conditions. Using titanium(III) citrate as a strong reductant converts the cobalt from Co(III) toCo(I), giving a new vitamin known as B12s, which is a powerfulnucleophile and reducing catalyst. This can then be used on PCBs, whichit de-chlorinates in a rapid and selective manner. Many inhibitingfactors can affect the results. This process only eliminates thebiological aspect of the process and takes a known catalyst in the formof an enzyme to perform a decomposition of PCB.

In contrast to these processes, a discriminate photoeatalytic processselected only for PCB will not form toxic intermediate by-products withthe process immune to inhibition by other chemicals. Moreover, the Cudoped AMO catalyst will perform better than the natural enzyme catalystsand produce a more economical, efficient and non-(by-product) producingsolution over the current methods. The major pathway for atmosphericdestruction of PCBs is via attack by OH radicals. However, this processis indiscriminate and will product varying by-products. Directphotolysis can occur in the upper atmosphere, but the ultravioletwavelengths necessary to excite PCBs are shielded from the troposphereby the ozone layer. By selecting the precise bond energies for thedestruction of PCBs, concentrating them and applying them with aselective energy of dissociation catalyst at sufficient intensity oneshould realize 100% destruction with no by-product creation.

B. Energy Recycling and/or Recovery

In one embodiment, component products, once purified, are used togenerate energy according to the following process:

-   -   (a) treating a sample comprising a target molecules to        dissociate the target molecule into component products;    -   (b) purifying the component products; and    -   (c) using at least one component product as a source of energy.

In one embodiment, the resultant component products of dissociationprocess are purified and/or utilized for another purpose. For example,resultant component products, such as gases, are collected by amicrosieve or a nanosponge. In another embodiment, evolved hydrogen gasis dissolved in water and converted to gaseous hydrogen. The gaseoushydrogen can further be purified by scrubbing, cryogenic separation,pressure-swing adsorption, or membrane separators.

In one embodiment, hydrogen gas resulting from the process is used topower fuel cells. In a preferred embodiment, hydrogen gas, generated bydissociation of ammonia in urine with a promoter, is recovered andutilized as an energy source. In the example of irradiative dissociationof ammonia, the resultant hydrogen gas can be purified and used forenergy.

This could be used in situations such as the large waste processingtanks associated with the “mega” pig farms or dairy farms.

In one embodiment, component products can be further recycled forpurposes other than energy generation according to the followingprocess:

-   -   (a) treating a sample to dissociates the target molecule into        component products;    -   (b) purifying the component products; and    -   (c) recycling at least one component product

In the example of irradiative dissociation of ammonia, the resultantnitrogen gas can be stored and utilized as a preservative or industrialchemical. Other component products, including all allotropeconfigurations, can be generated by the process including oxygen,sulfur, and phosphorous. All of these compounds are useful for variousindustrial processes.

C. Medical Applications

Effective mechanisms for targeting cells, tissues, and organs forspecific delivery of bioactive agents, particularly chemotherapeutics,are needed. There also remains a need for a process of deliveringbioactive agents with precision without damaging surrounding tissues.

The method described herein can be used to delivery drugs, releasedrugs, or selectively kill cancerous or infectious agents. These may beby targeting specific molecule on or in a cell or organism, or amolecule in the form of, attached to, or incorporated into ananoparticle.

In some embodiments, the nanoparticle composition includes ananoparticle such as a biodegradable nanoparticle, bucicyball, carbonnanotube, liposome, nanoshell, dendrimer, quantum dot, magneticnanoparticle, superparamagnetic nanoparticle, nanorod, goldnanoparticle, semiconductor nanoparticle (quantum dot or boron dopedsilicon nanowire), silicon oxide particle, a viral particle, or acombination thereof. The target molecule can be a gold nanoparticlecomposition which has at least one dimension measuring less than amicron in length. In some embodiments, the gold nanoparticlecompositions are in the form of nanorods, nanospheres andrianoplatelets.

In some embodiments the gold nanoparticle can be made of a gold alloy.Metals that can be used to form the gold alloy nanoparticle compositionspreferably have a high Z number, and include, but are not limited to,gold, silver, platinum, palladium, cobalt, iron, copper, tin, tantalum,vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, osmium, iridium, rhenium, hafnium,thallium, lead, bismuth, gadolinium, dysprosium, holmium, and uranium.

In another embodiment, the target molecule is a nanoparticle compositionmade of a metal core and a modified surface layer surrounding the metalcore. The metal core is preferably gold. However, in some embodiments,the metal core may be made of a gold alloy or another metal. Metalswhich can be used to form the metal core of the alloy nanoparticlecompositions preferably have a high Z number and include, but are notlimited to, gold, silver, platinum, palladium, cobalt, iron, copper,tin, tantalum, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, osmium, iridium, rhenium,hafnium, thallium, lead, bismuth, gadolinium, dysprosium, holmium, anduranium. The metal core can consist of one metal, or it can be a mixtureor an ordered, concentric layering of such metals, or a combination ofmixtures and layers.

Bioactive Agents

In preferred embodiments, the nanoparticle compositions include one ormore bioactive agents. Exemplary bioactive agents are selected from anon-exclusive list including antivirals such as acyclovir and proteaseinhibitors alone or in combination with nucleosides for treatment of HIVor Hepatitis B or C, anti-parasites (helminths, protozoans), anti-canceragents (chemotherapeutics), antibodies and bioactive fragments thereof(including humanized, single chain, and chimeric antibodies), peptidedrugs, anti-inflarnmatories, oligonucleotide drugs (including antisense,aptamers, ribozymes, external guide sequences for ribonuclease P, andtriplex forming agents), antibiotics, genes, antiulcerative agents suchas bismuth subsalicylate, digestive supplements and cofactors, andvitamins.

In some embodiments, bioactive agents are imaging or diagnostic agents.In one embodiment, the diagnostic agent is barium sulfate. Otherradioactive materials or magnetic materials can be used in place of, orin addition to, radio-opaque imaging materials. Examples of othermaterials include gases or gas-emitting compounds.

In some embodiments, bioactive agents can be present alone or incombination with other bioactive agents, carrier, excipients, diluents,fillers, or other pharmaceutically acceptable materials.

In some embodiments, the bioactive agent is bonded to the nanoparticlecomposition covalently. In another embodiment, the bioactive agent isencapsulated within the nanoparticle composition.

In the most preferred embodiment, the nanoparticle composition includesa chemotherapeutic, or anti-cancer agent, such as vines alkaloids,agents that disrupt microtubule function (microtubule stabilizers anddestabilizers), anti-angiogenic agents, tyrosine kinase targeting agent(such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors), transitional metal complexes,proteasome inhibitors, antimetabolites (such as nucleoside analogs),alkylating agents, platinum-based agents, anthracycline antibiotics,topoisomerase inhibitors, macrolides, therapeutic antibodies, retinoids(such as all-trans retinoic acids or a derivatives thereof);geldanamycin or a derivative thereof (such as 17-AAG), and otherstandard chemotherapeutic agents well recognized in the art. Examplesinclude adriamycin, colchicine, cyclophosphamide, actinomycin,bleomycin, duanorubicin, doxorubicin, epirubicin, mitomycin,methotrexate, mitoxantrone, fluorouracil, carboplatin, carmustine(BCNU), methyl-CCNU, etoposide, interferons, camptothecin andderivatives thereof, phenesterine, taxanes and derivatives thereof(e.g., paclitaxel and derivatives thereof, taxotere and derivativesthereof, and the like), topetecan, vinblastine, vincristine, tamoxifen,piposulfan, nab-5404, nab-5800, nab-5801, Irinotecan, HKP, Ortataxel,vinorelbine, Tarceva, Neulasta, Lapatinib, Sorafenib, Navelbine(vinorelbine), anthracycline (Doxil), lapatinib (GW57016), Herceptin,gemcitabine (Gemzar), capecitabine (Xeloda), Alimta, cisplatin,5-fluorouracil, epirubicin, cyclophosphamide, Avastin, Velcade, andderivatives thereof. In some embodiments, the chemotherapeutic agent isan antagonist of other factors that are involved in tumor growth, suchas EGFR, ErbB2 (also known as Herb), ErbB3, ErbB4, or TNF.

A bioactive agent can be homogeneously dispersed in the form of fineparticles within the nanoparticulate material. In another embodiment,the bioactive agent is partially solubilized in molten carrier materialor partially dissolved with the carrier material in a mutual solventduring the formulation of the nanoparticle composition. In anotherembodiment, the bioactive agent is completely solubilized in the moltencarrier material or completely dissolved with the carrier material in aco-solvent during the formulation of the nanoparticle composition. Thisis accomplished through the selection of materials and the manner inwhich they are processed.

Proteins which are water insoluble, such as zein, are preferred carriermaterials for the formation of nanoparticle compositions containing abioactive agent. Additionally, proteins, polysaccharides andcombinations thereof which are water soluble can be formulated with abioactive agent into nanoparticle compositions and subsequentlycross-linked to form an insoluble network. For example, cyclodextrinscan be complexed with individual bioactive molecules and subsequentlycross-linked.

Certain polymers may also be used as carrier materials in theformulation of bioactive agent containing nanoparticle compositions.Suitable polymers include ethylcellulose and other natural or syntheticcellulose derivatives. Polymers which are slowly soluble and form a gelin an aqueous environment, such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose orpolyethylene oxide may also be suitable as carrier materials fornanoparticle compositions containing a bioactive agent.

Encapsulation or incorporation of drug into carrier materials to producebioactive agent containing nanoparticle compositions can be achievedthrough known pharmaceutical formulation techniques. To create acomposition that protects the bioactive agent from exposure uponmechanical disruption (e.g., grinding, chewing, or chopping), thebioactive agent is intimately dispersed within the carrier material. Inthe case of fonaulation in fats, waxes or wax-like materials, thecarrier material is heated above its melting temperature and thebioactive agent is added to form a mixture comprising bioactiveparticles suspended in the carrier material, bioactive particlesdissolved in the carrier material, or a mixture thereof. Nanoparticlecompositions can be subsequently formulated through several methodsincluding, but not limited to, the processes of congealing, extrusion,spray chilling or aqueous dispersion. In a preferred process, wax isheated above its melting temperature, drug is added, and the moltenwax-drug mixture is congealed under constant stirring as the mixturecools. Alternatively, the molten wax-drug mixture can be extruded andspheronized to form pellets or beads. Detailed descriptions of theseprocesses can be found in “Remington-The science and practice ofpharmacy”, 20th Edition, Jennaro et. Al., (Phila, Lippencott, Williams,and Wilkens, 2000).

For some carrier materials it may be desirable to use a solventevaporation technique to produce bioactive agent containing nanoparticlecompositions. In this case the bioactive agent and carrier material areco-dissolved in a mutual solvent and nanoparticles can subsequently beproduced by several techniques including, but not limited to, forming anemulsion in water or other appropriate media, spray drying or byevaporating off the solvent from the bulk solution and milling theresulting material.

In another embodiment, the bioactive agent is covalently attached to thenanoparticle composition. Covalent attachment to the nanoparticlecomposition can be via any linker which is susceptible to hydrolysis invivo such the non-exclusive list including anhydrides, esters,carbamates, amides, hydrazones, hydrazines, carbazides, semicarbazides,thiosemicarbazides, thiocarbazides and combinations thereof. Thoseskilled in the art will recognize that whether a linker is required, andthe identity of the linker will depend on the composition of thenanoparticle and the bioactive agent.

In some embodiments, nanoparticle compositions include a targeting agenton the nanoparticle surface. Targeting agents are specific for aparticular cell type, tissue, or organ within an organism. Targetingagents can be synthetic or biologic agents. The biologic, synthetic, orother targeting agent on the surface of the nanoparticle directs thenanoparticle specifically to cells of interest which are to be treatedwith the bioactive agent.

In one embodiment, the targeting agent is an antibody, preferablyspecific for a protein or receptor which binds to a tumor cell ortumor-associated tissue. The antibody can be monoclonal, polyclonal,antibody fragments. Examples of antibody fragments include Fab, Fab′,F(ab′)₂, scFv, Fv, dsFv diabody, or Fd fragments. Exemplarytumor-specific antibodies include anti-HER-2 antibody for targetingbreast cancer cells, anti-A33 antigen antibody for targeting colon orgastric cancer, anti-human carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) antibody fortargeting carcinomas, HMFG2 or H17E2 antibodies for targeting breastcancer, and bispecific monoclonal antibodies composed of ananti-histamine-succinyl-glycine Fab′ covalently coupled with an Fab′ ofeither an anticarcinoemtnyonic antigen or an anticolon-specificantigen-p antibody.

In another embodiment, the targeting agent is a small molecule. A numberof receptors are over-expressed on the surfaces of cancer cells orcancer-associated tissues which bind small molecule ligands.Non-limiting examples of receptors over-expressed on cancer cellsinclude folic acid (folate) receptors and Factor VIIa. Conjugation offolic acid (folate) or the Factor VIIa ligand to a nanoparticlecomposition delivers the compositions to cancer cells, upon whichinternalization by receptor-mediated endocytosis can occur. The contentsof the nanoparticle composition are released upon treatment with thepromoter.

In another embodiment, the targeting agent is a nucleic acid ligandaptamer. Aptamers are DNA or RNA oligonucleotides or modified DNA or RNAoligonucleotides which fold into unique conformations specific tosatisfy a particular target-figand binding conformation. Non-limitingexamples of aptamers include aptamers that bind to vascular endothelialgrown factor (VEGF) and prostate specific membrane antigen (PSMA).

In another embodiment, the targeting agent is an oligopeptide which isspecific for a receptor selected from the non-exclusive list includingcell surface hormone receptors, tumor vasculature agents, and integrins.

Protocols for carrying out covalent attachment of targeting agents areroutinely performed by the skilled artisan. For example, conjugation canbe carried out by reacting thiol derivatized targeting agent with thenanoparticle composition. Alternatively, the targeting agents arederivatized with a linker, wherein the linker can further include achain of ethylene groups, a peptide or amino acid groups, polynucleotideor nucleotide groups which can be degraded in vivo.

D. Excipients

Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include talc, gum Arabic,lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, cocoa butter, aqueous ornon-aqueous vehicles, fatty substances of animal or vegetable origin,paraffin derivatives, glycols, various wetting, dispersing oremulsifying agents and preservatives.

For injection, the lactones will typically be formulated as solutions orsuspensions in a liquid carrier.

In some embodiments, nanoparticle compositions are prepared using apharmaceutically acceptable “carrier” composed of materials that areconsidered safe and effective and may be administered to an individualwithout causing undesirable biological side effects or unwantedinteractions. The “carrier” is all components present in thepharmaceutical formulation other than the active ingredient oringredients. The term “carrier” includes, but is not limited to,diluents, binders, lubricants, desintegrators, fillers, and coatingcompositions.

“Carrier” also includes all components of the coating composition whichmay include plasticizers, pigments, colorants, stabilizing agents, andglidants. The delayed release dosage formulations may be prepared asdescribed in references such as “Pharmaceutical dosage form tablets”,eds. Liberman et. al. (New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1989),“Remington—The science and practice of pharmacy”, 20th ed., LippincottWilliams & Baltimore, Md., 2000, and “Pharmaceutical dosage forms anddrug delivery systems”, 6th Edition, Ansel et.al., (Media, Pa.: Williamsand Wilkins, 1995) which provides information on carriers, materials,equipment and process for preparing tablets and capsules and delayedrelease dosage forms of tablets, capsules, and granules.

Examples of suitable coating materials include, but are not limited to,cellulose polymers such as cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulosephthalate and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate; polyvinylacetate phthalate, acrylic acid polymers and copolymers, and methacrylicresins that are commercially available under the trade name Eudragit®(Roth Pharma, Westerstadt, Germany), Zein, shellac, and polysaccharides.

Additionally, the coating material may contain conventional carrierssuch as plasticizers, pigments, colorants, glidants, stabilizationagents, pore formers and surfactants.

Optional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients present in thedrug-containing compositions include, but are not limited to, diluents,binders, lubricants, disintegrants, colorants, stabilizers, andsurfactants. Diluents, also termed “fillers,” are typically necessary toincrease the bulk of a solid dosage form so that a practical size isprovided for compression. Suitable diluents include, but are not limitedto, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, calcium sulfate, lactose, sucrose,mannitol, sorbitol, cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, kaolin,sodium chloride, dry starch, hydrolyzed starches, pregelatinized starch,silicone dioxide, titanium oxide, magnesium aluminum silicate and powdersugar.

Binders are used to impart cohesive qualities to a solid nanoparticleformulation. Suitable binder materials include, but are not limited to,starch, pregelatinized starch, gelatin, sugars (including sucrose,glucose, dextrose, lactose and sorbitol), polyethylene glycol, waxes,natural and synthetic gums such as acacia, tragacanth, sodium alginate,cellulose, including hydorxypropylmethylcellulose,hydroxypropylcellulose, ethylcellulose, and veegum, and syntheticpolymers such as acrylic acid and methacrylic acid copolymers,methacrylic acid copolymers, methyl methacrylate copolymers, aminoalkylmethacrylate copolymers, polyacrylic acid/polyrnethacrylic acid andpolyvinylpyrrolidone.

Lubricants can also be used in the nanoparticle composition. Examples ofsuitable lubricants include, but are not limited to, magnesium stearate,calcium stearate, stearlo acid, glycerol behenate, polyethylene glycol,talc, and mineral oil.

Disintegrants are used to facilitate dosage form disintegration or“breakup” after administration, and generally include, but are notlimited to, starch, sodium starch glycolate, sodium carboxymethylstarch, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose,pregelatinized starch, clays, cellulose, alginine, gums or cross linkedpolymers, such as cross-linked PVP (Polyplasdone XL from GAF ChemicalCorp).

Stabilizers are used to inhibit or retard drug decomposition reactionswhich include, by way of example, oxidative reactions.

Surfactants may be anionic, cationic, amphoteric or nonionic surfaceactive agents. Suitable anionic surfactants include, but are not limitedto, those containing carboxylate, sulfonate and sulfate ions. Examplesof anionic surfactants include sodium, potassium, and ammonium salts oflong chain alkyl sulfonates and alkyl aryl sulfonates such as sodiumdodecylbenzene sulfonate; dialkyl sodium sulfosuccinates, such as sodiumdodecylbenzene sulfonate; dialkyl sodium sulfosuccinates, such as sodiumbis-(2-ethylthioxyl)-sulfosuccinate; and alkyl sulfates such as sodiumlauryl sulfate. Cationic surfactants include, but are not limited to,quaternary ammonium compounds such as benzalkonium chloride,benzethonium chloride, cetritnonium bromide, stearyl dimethylbenzylammonium chloride, polyoxyethylene and coconut amine. Examples ofnonionic surfactants include ethylene glycol monostearate, propyleneglycol myristate, glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl stearate,polyglyceryl-4-oleate, sorbitan acylate, sucrose acylate, PEG-150laurate, PEG-400 monolaurate, polyoxyethylene monolaurate, polysorbates,polyoxyethylene octylphenylether, PEG-1000 cetyl ether, polyoxyethylenetridecyl ether, polypropylene glycol butyl ether, Poloxamer® 401,stearoyl monoisopropanolamide, and polyoxyethylene hydrogenated tallowamide. Examples of amphoteric surfactants include sodiumN-dodecyl-β-alanine, sodium N-lauryl-β-iminodipropionate,myristoamphoacetate, lauryl betaine and lauryl sulfobetaine.

If desired, the nanoparticle compositions may also contain minor amountof nontoxic auxiliary substances such as wetting or emulsifying agents,dyes, pH buffering agents, and preservatives.

E. Methods of Administration

In some embodiments, the nanoparticle compositions are administered byany standard method including topical, enteral, or parenteraladministration. Topical methods of administration include epicutaneous,inhalational, enema, eye or ear drop, and transmucosal. Enteraladministration include including oral dosing, feeding tube, orsuppository. Parenteral forms of administration include intravenousinjection, intraarterial injection, intramuscular injection,intraperitoneal injection, and subcutaneous injection.

In another embodiment, a reservoir device or cavity capable of a slowrelease of the nanoparticle composition can also be administered by theabove-listed methods. In the preferred embodiment, the nanoparticle isinjected into a specific tissue or organ before treatment. In the mostpreferred embodiment, the nanoparticle composition is injected into acancerous tissue or organ before treatment. Administration of thenanoparticle composition does not result in released bioactive agent dueto degradation within the GI tract, degradation by enzymes or acids, ormechanical erosion.

The nanoparticle composition can be administered to a patient to treat,prevent, and detect a biological disease or disorder by deliveringbioactive agents to a cell, tissue, or organ. The nanoparticlecomposition can be administered systemically or locally. Similarly, theenergy of dissociation can be applied globally or locally. Those skilledin the art will recognize the specific combination of method ofadministration and energy of dissociation treatment will depend on thepatient, dosage required, disease or disorder, and other factors.

In one embodiment, the nanoparticle composition is administered to apatient systemically, and energy of dissociation treatment occursglobally. In another embodiment, a nanoparticle composition isadministered to a patient systemically and energy of dissociationtreatment occurs locally. Specificity for a target tissue or organ isobtained by treatment with the energy of dissociation at the site,tissue, or organ of interest. The targeting agent is specific for thecell, tissue, or organ of interest, and directs the nanoparticiecomposition to the appropriate location. In some embodiments, thenanoparticle compositions will be endocytosed by cells. In the preferredembodiment, the nanoparticle composition is administered locally, viainjection for example, and energy of dissociation treatment occurslocally via a non-invasive energetic energy of dissociation source, suchas ultrasound applied to the abdomen.

In all of the above-identified embodiments, treatment with the energy ofdissociation results in nanoparticle composition dissociation intocomponent products such that the bioactive agents are released into thesurrounding medium to act via the normal mechanism of action.

In some embodiments, the process can be used to deliver drugs to treator prevent disease. In one embodiment, the process can be used todeliver contrast or other imaging agents for detection or imagingpurposes. Examples of medical imaging techniques include X-ray imaging,ultrasound imaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear imaging,positron emission tomography (PET), radiography, fluoroscopy, andcomputed tomography (CT).

The following example is included to demonstrate a preferred embodimentof the invention. While the processes and uses have been described interms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill inthe art that variations may be applied to the composition, methods andin the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described hereinwithout departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention.

EXAMPLE Example 1 Photocatalytic Generation of N₂ from NH₃Photocatalysis

A pulse of light of a particular frequency and intensity of a quickduration (nano or pico-second burst or similar duration providing amulti-photon discharge) is used to photodissociate ammonia to nitrogenand hydrogen with no production of any intermediates or oxidizedby-products such as nitrate, nitrite or nitrous oxide. This isaccomplished by the use of the correct promoter, light frequency energyand/or specific input of the correct bond dissociation energy orenergies for ammonia with a proper intensity which provides for amultiphoton or frequency energy exposure of the ammonia molecule. Aparticular molecular bond having a precise energy of bond ordissociation in each target molecule is broken by photo-dissociation,only due to the light pulse being at the proper frequency and intensitywith the proper number of photons attached within the necessary time toprevent reconnection, thereby producing harmless nitrogen and hydrogen,thereby removing the harmful ammonia from the water. A benefit of thisprocess is that the off gases or cleaved atoms can be collected and usedas energy sources as is in the situation with hydrogen in a fuel cell orhydride engine or as a nutrient.

Materials and Methods

A three ounce solution of 1 ppm ammonia in water was irradiated with axenon curing bulb attached to a pulse generator which supplied 3 pulsesper second. Optionally, one of the following catalysts were included:Pt/TiO₂ (platinized titania), TiO₂ (Titanium oxide), Cu-AMO(Copper-doped Amorphous Manganese Oxide, AMO (Amorphous ManganeseOxide), and Cu—Ce—Co (Copper-Cerium-Cobalt). The xenon curing bulb wasset to the low ultraviolet range from 185 nm to 280 nm. The solutionswere tested for component gases after one second and one minute. Theresultant gases of dissociation, N₂ (g) and H₂ (g), were measured by gaschromatography (GC), mass spectrometry (MS), ion chromatography, and gaschromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) methods. Separation anddetermination of ammonia (NH₃), nitrite (NO₂ ⁻) and nitrate (NO₃) insingle sample solutions was performed as follows:

1. NH4⁺ was converted to NH₃ in solution using NaOH.

2. NH₃ was reduced to NO₂ ⁻ using FeSO₄.

3. NO₂ ⁻ was oxidized to NO₃ ⁻ using Al—Cu—Zn (Devarda's alloy)

Results

Preliminary results for the degradation of ammonia in water are shownbelow in Tables 1-3. The products were analyzed by gas chromatography(GC), mass spectrometry (MS), ion chromatography, and gaschromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) methods.

TABLE 1 Generation of N₂ from NH₃ via Photocatalysis O₂ peak N₂ peakTotal Peak N₂ Peak Peak Sample Trial area area Area Ratio^(a) Ratio^(b)100% N₂ 1 0 1557.491 1557.491 1.00 0 2 2.3732 1557.4989 1601.3 0.972656.286 Air 1 149.2122 609.9426 759.1548 0.803 4.087 2 58.9228 236.4986295.4214 0.800 4.013 Blank^(c) 1 9.0868 32.8381 41.9249 0.783 3.613 22.9284 9.2394 12.1678 0.759 3.150 Platinized Day 1 115.4792 552 679.33850.813 4.782 TiO₂ Day 2, 5.0618 23.9787 39.1785 0.612 4.737 Trial 1 Day2, 5.5956 25.2047 30.8003 0.818 4.504 Trial 2 ^(a)N₂ Peak Ratio = (N₂Peak Area/Total Peak Area) ^(b)Peak Ratio = (N₂ Peak Area/O₂ Peak Area)^(c)O₂ and N₂ peaks observed are attributed to sample contamination withair due to the limitation of manual injection despite precautions.Online injection avoids this contamination. Trial 1 = 1 second; Trial 2= 1 minute

TABLE 2 Photocatalytic Data for Various Photocatalysts^(a) CatalystTrial NH₃ NO₂ ⁻ NO₃ ⁻ Platinized 1 0.0574 0.0125 0.0137 TiO₂ 2 0.05740.0123 0.0135 3 0.0572 0.0122 0.0134 Average 0.0573 0.0123 0.0135 TiO₂ 10.1547 0.0101 0 2 0.1548 0.0106 0 3 0.1550 0.0108 0 Average 0.15480.0105 0 Cu-AMO 1 0.1322 0 0 2 0.132 0 0 3 0.1318 0 0 Average 0.132 0 0AMO 1 0.736 0 0 2 0.7358 0 0 3 0.7356 0 0 Average 0.7358 0 0 Co—Ce—Cu 10.3926 0 0 2 0.3924 0 0 3 0.3922 0 0 Average 0.3924 0 0 ^(a)Units are inAbsorbance Units

TABLE 3 NH₃ Concentrations following Photocatalysis with VariousCatalysts Average Calculated NH₃ Concentration Percent DecreaseFollowing from Starting NH₃ Catalyst Photocatalysis (mM) Concentration(%) None 0.19 0 Platinized Titania 0.029 84.6 TiO₂ 0.080 57.5 Cu-AMO0.068 63.9 AMO 0.388 −104.2 Cu—Ce—Co 0.206 −8.93

Discussion

From Tables 1-3 and FIG. 1, a significant decrease in NH₃ concentrationin Pt/TiO₂ from 0.1 mM to 0.029 mM is observed. This is an indication ofthe conversion of ammonia to other nitrogen-containing species. Thephotocatalytic activity of AMO is impressive. However, the data clearlyindicate photocatalytic oxidation of NH₃ in aqueous solution to theundesirable toxic nitrate and nitrite oxygenated products. Doping theAMO with copper (Cu²⁺ ions) markedly increased the selectivity for 100%conversion of ammonia to nitrogen gas.

1. A process for dissociation of one or more target molecules,comprising (a) treating a sample comprising a target molecule with aneffective amount, intensity and frequency of energy to specificallydissociate one or more bonds in the target molecule to separate themolecule into its component products without producing-any reactantsandwithout re-association of the one or more target bonds.
 2. Theprocess of claim 1, wherein the energy source is selected from the groupconsisting of chemical, kinetic, potential, magnetic, thermal,gravitational, sound, light, elastic, electrical, piezoelectric, andelectrochemical energy.
 3. The process for dissociation of one or moretarget molecules of claim 1, wherein the energy is in the form of lightirradiation, acoustic or electromagnetic radiation.
 4. The process fordissociation of one or more target molecules of claim 3, wherein theirradiative energy is amplified.
 5. The process of claim 1, wherein theenergy source is an apparatus selected from the group consisting offrequency generators, electrical generators, plasma generators, arclamps, pulse generators, amplifying generators, tunable lasers,ultraviolet lamps, ultraviolet lasers, pulse ultraviolet generators,ultrasound generators, and combinations thereof.
 6. The process of claim1, comprising providing a catalyst.
 7. The process of claim 6, whereinthe catalyst is a semi-conductive material or magnetic material.
 8. Theprocess of claim 6, where in the catalyst is selected from the groupconsisting of titanium oxides (TiO₂), platinized titanic, amorphousmanganese oxide, copper-doped manganese oxide, titanium dioxide,strontium titanate, barium titanate, sodium titanate, cadmium sulfide,zirconium dioxide, and iron oxide.
 9. The process of claim 6, whereinthe catalyst is a semiconductor material selected from the groupconsisting of platinum, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium, strontiumtitanate, amorphous silicon, hydrogenated amorphous silicon,nitrogenated amorphous silicon, polycrystalline silicon, germanium, andcombinations thereof.
 10. The process of claim 6, wherein the catalystis selected from the group consisting of carbon-based graphene orgraphite, carbon-doped semi-conductive material, or carbon-dopedmagnetic material.
 11. The process for dissociation of one or moretarget molecules of claim 1, wherein the energy source is a combinationof irradiative energy and catalyst.
 12. The process of claim 11, whereinthe energy is ultraviolet irradiation and the catalyst is copper dopedamorphous manganese oxide.
 13. The process for dissociation of one ormore target molecules of claim 1, wherein the target molecule isselected from the group consisting of alkyl sulfonates, alkyl phenols,ammonia, benzoic acid, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,chlorofluorocarbons, dioxin, fumaric acid, grease, herbicides,hydrochloric acid, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, formaldehyde,medicines, methane, nitric acid, , nitrogen dioxide, nitrates, nitrites,ozone, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, oil, sulfur dioxide,sulfuric acid and volatile organic compounds.
 14. The process fordissociation of one or more target molecules of claim 1, wherein thetarget molecule comprises waste material.
 15. The process fordissociation of one or more target molecules of claim 14, wherein thewaste material is selected from the group consisting of ventilationmakeup air, ambient air, air from stripping and off-gassing operations,soil vapor extraction (SVE), airborne matter, organic particulatematter, process vent gas, wastewater treatment off-gas, liquideffluents, wastewater, industrial runoff, and agricultural runoff,polluted soil, sludge waste, and landfill waste.
 16. The process fordissociation of one or more target molecules of claim 1, furthercomprising (b) purifying, recycling or reclaiming the componentproducts.
 17. The process for dissociation of one or more targetmolecules of claim 1 further comprising (c) using at least one componentproduct to produce energy.
 18. The process of for dissociation of one ormore target molecules of claim 1, wherein the target molecule isammonia.
 19. The process for dissociation of one or more targetmolecules of claim 18, wherein the ammonia originates from urine,fertilizer, or aquacultural waste products.
 20. The process fordissociation of one or more target molecules of claim 19, whereinhydrogen gas is produced.
 21. The process for dissociation of one ormore target molecules of claim 1 wherein the target molecule is a PCB.22. The process for dissociation of one or more target molecules ofclaim 1 wherein the target molecule is a therapeutic, prophylactic ordiagnostic agent.
 23. The process for dissociation of one or more targetmolecules of claim 22 wherein the target molecule is a chemotherapeuticfor treatment of cancer or infectious agents.
 24. The process fordissociation of one or more target molecules of claim 23 wherein thetarget molecule is incorporated onto, into or forms a nanoparticle. 25.The process for dissociation of one or more target molecules of claim 24wherein the nanoparticle corriprises a metal.
 26. A system for use inthe method of claim 1.